Tissue, tendons, wound healing
Recovery.
Substances investigated in animal models and early clinical studies for tissue-regenerating, wound-healing or gastroprotective properties.
This site is intended for factual information only. It is not medical advice. This site sells no substances and names no sources.
BPC-157
Body Protection Compound 157
BPC-157 is a synthetic pentadecapeptide derived from a partial sequence of a human gastric juice protein. In preclinical studies, interactions with the NO system (nitric oxide signalling pathway) and with the EGR1 and VEGFR2 receptor pathways have been described, which may mediate angiogenic and cytoprotective effects. The precise mechanisms of action in humans have not been conclusively established.
TB-500
Thymosin Beta-4
TB-500 (as a synthetic analog of thymosin beta-4, a naturally occurring peptide) interacts with G-actin and regulates actin polymerisation in cells. Thymosin beta-4 is expressed endogenously in high concentrations in platelets and other cells and is involved in cell migration, proliferation and differentiation. Preclinical studies suggest interactions with angiogenic and inflammation-modulating signalling pathways. The term 'TB-500' is a trade designation for a synthetic fragment analog and is not identical to native thymosin beta-4.
GHK-Cu
Copper Peptide GHK
GHK-Cu (glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine with a copper(II) complex) is a naturally occurring tripeptide detected in human plasma, saliva and urine. It binds copper ions and transports them into tissue. In vitro and in preclinical models, effects on collagen synthesis, antioxidant enzyme activity and the expression of growth factors (including VEGF, FGF) have been described. The precise mechanism of action in vivo in humans has not been fully elucidated.
IGF-1
Insulin-like Growth Factor 1
IGF-1 is a 70-amino-acid polypeptide with structural homology to insulin. It binds primarily to the IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R), through which it activates the PI3K/Akt/mTOR and Ras/MAPK signalling cascades. Its main site of production is the liver, where synthesis is stimulated by growth hormone (GH). IGF-1 is regarded as a central mediator of the anabolic effects of growth hormone on muscle, bone and nerve tissue. In the blood, IGF-1 circulates bound to IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs), which regulate its bioavailability and half-life.
LL-37
Cathelicidin
LL-37 is the only human cathelicidin — a 37-amino-acid peptide produced by proteolytic cleavage from the precursor protein hCAP-18. It acts directly antimicrobially by destabilising bacterial cell membranes (cationic charge + amphipathic helical structure). In addition, LL-37 has immunomodulatory functions: it activates Toll-like receptors (TLR), promotes the chemotaxis of immune cells, stimulates angiogenesis via VEGFR-2 and accelerates wound healing. LL-37 is produced mainly in neutrophils, mast cells and epithelial cells — especially after tissue injury or infection.
Hexarelin
Examorelin
Hexarelin is a synthetic hexapeptide and the most potent GH secretagogue of the GHRP class. As a high-affinity GHS-R1a agonist, at equimolar doses it produces 2–3-fold higher GH pulses than GHRP-2, GHRP-6 or ipamorelin. In addition to GHS-R1a activity, hexarelin binds the CD36 scavenger receptor — a mechanism shown by no other GHRP compound and thought to mediate cardioprotective effects (reduction of myocardial fibrosis, improved cardiac function in animal models). Hexarelin raises cortisol and prolactin more strongly than other GHRPs and shows pronounced tachyphylaxis.
SS-31
Elamipretide
SS-31 (elamipretide) is a synthetic, cell-permeable tetrapeptide (D-Arg-2′6′-dimethyltyrosine-Lys-Phe-NH₂). It accumulates selectively in the inner mitochondrial membrane, where it binds cardiolipin — a phospholipid found exclusively in mitochondria that stabilises cristae structure and the function of the respiratory chain. Through cardiolipin binding, SS-31 reduces oxidative stress, stabilises the electron transport chain (complexes I–IV), increases ATP production and prevents the release of cytochrome c (an apoptotic signal). This mechanism is independent of cell type and disease context — which explains its broad application spectrum in research.
Teriparatid
Teriparatide
Teriparatide is the recombinant N-terminal fragment (1-34) of human parathyroid hormone (PTH). It binds to the PTH-1 receptor on osteoblasts and osteocytes. Unlike a persistently elevated PTH concentration (which promotes bone resorption), intermittent once-daily administration produces a predominantly anabolic effect on bone. A stimulation of osteoblast activity and an increase in bone mass and structure have been described.
Abaloparatid
Abaloparatide
Abaloparatide is a synthetic analog of parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP 1-34). It binds preferentially to the RG conformation of the PTH-1 receptor, which is thought to produce a more anabolically oriented, more transient signalling response than teriparatide. Like teriparatide it is used intermittently (once daily) to favour bone formation over resorption.
Erythropoetin (EPO)
Erythropoetin
Erythropoietin (EPO) is a glycosylated protein hormone (165 amino acids) produced predominantly in the kidney. It binds to the EPO receptor on erythroid progenitor cells in the bone marrow and stimulates their survival, division and maturation into red blood cells. This increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Recombinant EPO (epoetin) mimics this physiological action.
Cerebrolysin
Cerebrolysin
Cerebrolysin is not a single peptide but a standardised mixture of low-molecular-weight peptides and free amino acids derived from porcine brain tissue. It is credited with neurotrophic and neuroprotective properties said to resemble those of the body's own neurotrophic factors. Discussed effects include neuronal survival, synaptic plasticity and modulation of inflammatory and apoptotic processes. Its exact composition and mechanism of action are not fully characterised.
MGF
Mechano Growth Factor
MGF (mechano growth factor) is a splice variant of the IGF-1 gene (IGF-1 Ec) expressed mainly after mechanical muscle loading. Its characteristic C-terminal E-peptide is discussed as a separate signal thought to promote the activation and proliferation of muscle satellite cells. The pegylated form (PEG-MGF) is intended to extend the very short half-life of the native peptide. The precise receptor of the E-peptide has not been conclusively identified.
IGF-1 DES
IGF-1 DES
IGF-1 DES is a truncated variant of insulin-like growth factor 1 lacking the first three N-terminal amino acids (DES(1-3)IGF-1). This truncation makes the molecule bind much more weakly to IGF binding proteins, allowing higher relative activity at the IGF-1 receptor in tissue. In cell models an increased potency relative to full-length IGF-1 has been described. The action concerns cell proliferation, differentiation and anabolic signalling.
ARA 290 (Cibinetid)
ARA 290
ARA 290 (cibinetide) is a short peptide derived from helix B of erythropoietin (EPO). It binds to the so-called innate repair receptor (a complex of the EPO receptor and the β-common receptor subunit) without having the erythropoietic (blood-forming) action of EPO. Tissue-protective and inflammation-modulating effects have been described. The focus is on neuropathic and inflammatory conditions.
AHK-Cu
AHK-Cu
AHK-Cu is a copper-binding tripeptide (alanine-histidine-lysine) and belongs to the family of cosmetic copper peptides, similar to the better-known GHK-Cu. The bound copper ion is considered functionally relevant. In preclinical investigations AHK-Cu has been described mainly in the context of hair-follicle stimulation and promotion of dermal cells. Use is predominantly topical/cosmetic.
B7-33
B7-33
B7-33 is a single-chain, simplified mimetic of the hormone relaxin-2. Unlike natural two-chain relaxin it is more readily accessible synthetically and is said to act functionally selectively at the relaxin receptor RXFP1: primarily via anti-fibrotic (anti-scarring) signalling, with weaker activation of other cascades. It is investigated in preclinical models of organ fibrosis and cardiac injury. It is not an approved medicine.
More research areas
Show all areas